How Much Is a Signed Navajo Baby Cuff Bracelet Coin Silver Turquoise Bracelet Worth

Overview of the cultural multifariousness and history of jewelry that originated in Native American tribes

Native American jewelry refers to items of personal adornment, whether for personal apply, sale or as art; examples of which include necklaces, earrings, bracelets, rings and pins, too as ketohs, wampum, and labrets, made past ane of the Ethnic peoples of the Us. Native American jewelry normally reflects the cultural multifariousness and history of its makers, but tribal groups have often borrowed and copied designs and methods from other, neighboring tribes or nations with which they had trade, and this practice continues today. Native American tribes go on to develop distinct aesthetics rooted in their personal artistic visions and cultural traditions. Artists may create jewelry for adornment, ceremonies, and brandish, or for sale or trade. Lois Sherr Dubin writes, "[i]n the absence of written languages, beautification became an important element of Indian communication, conveying many levels of information." Later, jewelry and personal adornment "...signaled resistance to assimilation. It remains a major statement of tribal and individual identity."^[2]

Native American jewelry can be made from naturally occurring materials such as diverse metals, hardwoods, vegetal fibers, or precious and semi-precious gemstones; fauna materials such as teeth, bones and hibernate; or man-made materials similar beadwork and quillwork. Metalsmiths, beaders, carvers, and lapidaries combine these materials to create jewelry. Contemporary Native American jewelry ranges from hand-quarried and processed stones and shells to reckoner-made steel and titanium jewelry.

Bai-De-Schluch-A-Ichin or Be-Ich-Schluck-Ich-In-Et-Tzuzzigi (Slender Silversmith) "Metallic Beater," Navajo silversmith, photo by George Ben Wittick, 1883

Origins [edit]

Jewelry in the Americas has an ancient history. The earliest known examples of jewelry North American are four bone earrings founded at the Mead Site, virtually Fairbanks, Alaska that date back 12,000 years.^[3] Start as far back every bit 8800 BCE, Paleo-Indians in the American Southwest drilled and shaped multicolored stones and shells into beads and pendants.^[4] Olivella trounce beads, dating from 6000 BCE, were found in Nevada; bone, antler, and perhaps marine vanquish beads from 7000 BCE were institute in Russell Cave in Alabama; copper jewelry was traded from Lake Superior beginning in 3000 BCE; and rock chaplet were carved in Poverty Betoken in Louisiana in 1500 BCE.^[five]

Necklaces of heishe beads, or shell ground into flat discs, have been discovered in ancient ruins. Remnants of seashells that were used to make beads were as well establish. Oyster beat out, mother of pearl, abalone, conch and clam shells take been important merchandise items in the Southwest for over a thousand years.

Native beadwork connected to advance in the pre-Columbian era. Beads were made from paw-basis and filled turquoise, coral, and shell. Carved wood, brute bones, claws, and teeth were made into beads, which were then sewn onto clothing, or strung into necklaces.^{[6] [7]} Turquoise is one of the dominant materials of Southwestern Native American jewelry. Thousands of pieces were found in the Ancestral Pueblo sites at Chaco Canyon. Some turquoise mines appointment back to Precolumbian times, and Ancestral Pueblo peoples traded the turquoise with Mesoamericans. Some turquoise found in southern Arizona dates back to 200 BCE.^{[6] [8] [9]}

Great Plains [edit]

Plains Indians are near well known for their beadwork. Beads on the Corking Plains engagement dorsum to at least to 8800 BCE, when a circular, incised lignite bead was left at the Lindenmeier Site in Colorado.^[10] Shells such equally marginella and olivella shells were traded from the Gulf of Mexico and the coasts of California into the Plains since 100 CE.^[10] Mussel shell gorgets, dentalia, and abalone were prized trade items for jewelry.^[11]

Bones provided material for beads as well, especially long, cylindrical beads called hair pipes, which were extremely pop from 1880 to 1910 and are still are very mutual in powwow regalia today. These are used in chokers, breastplates, earrings, and necklaces worn past women and men, and in ceremonial headdresses likewise.^[12]

Porcupine quillwork is a traditional embellishment for textiles on the northern Plains, just quillwork is besides used in creating bracelets, earrings, hatbands, belt buckles, headdresses, hair roaches, and hairclips, likewise as umbilical cord fetishes. Glass beads were start introduced to the Plains as early equally 1700 and were used in decoration in a manner similar to quillwork, but they never fully replaced it. The Lakota became specially skillful at glass dewdrop work, especially the members of the Standing Stone Sioux Tribe in the Western Dakotas. Several accolade-winning quillworkers are active in the art world today, such equally Juanita Growing Thunder Fogarty (Assiniboine-Sioux).^[13]

Metallic jewelry came to the Plains through Spanish and Mexican metalsmiths and trade with tribes from other regions. Southern Plains Native Americans adopted metalsmithing in the 1820s. They typically cut, stamped, and cold hammered German silver, a nickel blend.^[14] Plains men adopted metal pectorals and armbands.^[15] In the late 19th and early 20th centuries, members of the Native American Church revealed their membership to others through pins with emblems of peyote buttons, water bird, and other religious symbols.^[sixteen] Bruce Caesar (Sac and Pull a fast one on-Pawnee) is 1 of the most prolific Southern Plains metalsmiths active today and was awarded the NEA'southward National Heritage Fellowship in 1998.^[17] US Senator Ben Nighthorse Campbell (Northern Cheyenne) is an accomplished silversmith.^[xviii]

Northeastern Woodlands [edit]

Before European contact and at least 1500 years agone ethnic peoples of the Northeastern Woodlands produced barrel-shaped and discoidal crush beads, too as perforated modest whole shells. The primeval chaplet are larger when compared to afterward beads and those of wampum, with hand drilled holes. The utilize of the more slender atomic number 26 drills much improved drilling.

"Wampum" is a Wampanoag discussion referring to the white shells of the channeled whelk crush. The term now refers to both those and the majestic beads from quahog clamshells.^[19] Wampum workshops were located among the Narragansett tribe, an Algonquian people located along the southern New England coast. The Narragansett tribal dewdrop makers were buried with wampum supplies and tools to finish piece of work in progress in the afterlife. Wampum was highly sought as a trade adept throughout the Eastern Woodlands, including the Great Lakes region.

Narragansett favored teardrop-shaped shell pendants, and the hook pendants made of majestic shell were worn by Iroquois in the Hudson Valley, around the Connecticut River. The Seneca and Munsee made shell pendants with drilled columns, decorated with a round shell called a runtee. Whelk shells were carved into bird, turtle, fish, and other shaped pendants, likewise as ear spools.^[xx]

Carved stone pendants in the Northeastern Woodlands appointment dorsum equally far equally the Hopewell tradition from i—400 CE. Bird motifs were common, ranging from the stylized heads of raptors to ducks.^[21] Carved shells and incised animal teeth, peculiarly bear teeth, take been pop for pendants. Historically, pearls are incorporated into necklace and bear teeth have been inlaid with pearls.^[22] Seneca and other Iroquois carved small-scale pendants with human faces, which were believed to exist protective amulets, from bone, wood, and stone, including catlinite.^[23]

Iroquois artists have carved ornamental pilus combs from antlers, often from moose, since 2000 BCE. The combs are topped with anthropomorphic or zoomorphic imagery. These became more elaborate after the introduction of metal knives from Europe in the tardily 16th and 17th centuries.^[24]

In the Northeast Woodlands and Great Lakes regions, rectangular gorgets have been carved from slate and other stones, dating back to the late archaic period.^[25]

Copper was worked in precontact times, but Europeans introduced silversmithing to the northeast in the mid-17th century. Today several Iroquois silversmiths are active. German silver is more pop among Great Lakes silversmiths.^[26]

Northwest Coast [edit]

In the past, walrus ivory was an important material for carving bracelets and other items. In the 1820s, a major argillite quarry was discovered on Haida Gwaii, and this stone proved easier to carve than ivory or bone and was adopted as a carving material.^[27] Venetian drinking glass seed chaplet were introduced in great numbers by Russian traders in the late 18th century, as part of the fur trade. Ruby and bister were the nigh popular colors, followed by blue. Historical Chinese coins with defenestrated section were strung equally beads.^[28]

Copper, initially traded from tribes near the Coppermine River in the interior, was worked into jewelry even before European contact.^[29] Later, silver and gold became pop materials for jewelry. Bracelets in particular are hammered and and then carved with heraldic or mythic designs, and given away at potlatches. Northwest Declension jewelers increasingly use repoussé techniques in metalworking.^[thirty] Charles Edenshaw (Haida, 1839–1920) and Bill Reid (Haida, 1920–1998) were highly influential Northwest Coast jewelers.

Dentalium shells have been traditional beads, used in necklaces, earrings, and other adornment. Kwakwaka'wakw and Nuu-chah-nulth people used to harvest the shell from the waters off Vancouver Island,^[31] but that stock is depleted and today most dentalia are harvested from southeast Asia. Abalone beat provides chaplet and jewelry. Loftier-ranking women traditionally wore large abalone shell earrings.^[32]

Today Haida and Tlingit basket weavers ofttimes create miniature ruddy cedar (Thuja plicata), xanthous cedar, and bandbox root baskets to be worn equally pendants or earrings.

Southeastern Woodlands [edit]

In the Mississippian culture of the Southeast, dating from 800 BCE to 1500 CE, clay, stone, and pearl beads were worn. Vanquish gorgets were incised with bold imagery from the Southeastern Formalism Complex. These are still carved today past several Muscogee Creek, Chickasaw, and Cherokee jewelers. Long-nosed god maskettes were made from bone, copper and marine shells. These are small shield-shaped faces with squared-off foreheads, circular eyes, and big noses of various lengths. They are often shown on SECC representations of falcon impersonators as ear ornaments.^[33] Before Europeans brought glass chaplet to the southeast in the 16th century, pearls and Job'due south tears were popular materials for necklaces. Ear spools of rock, or sometimes wood overlaid with copper foil, were popular, and many have been found at Spiro Mounds from 1100 to 1400 CE.^[34]

European contact introduced glass chaplet and silversmithing technology. Silver and brass armbands and gorgets became popular among Southeastern men in the 18th and 19th centuries. Sequoyah was an 18th/19th-century Cherokee silversmith. Until the 19th century, Choctaw men wore horsehair collars when playing stickball. Choctaw women'southward dance regalia incorporates ornamental silver combs and openwork beaded collars.^[35] Caddo women wear hourglass-shaped pilus ornaments, called dush-tohs when dancing.^[36]

Southwest [edit]

Heishe necklaces have been made past several southwest tribes since ancient times. The word "heishe" comes from the Santo Domingo word for "shell."^[37] A single heishe is a rolled bead of crush, turquoise, or coral, which is cut very thin. Shells used for heishe included mother-of-pearl, spiny oyster, abalone, coral, conch and clam. Tiny, thin heishe was strung together by the Santo Domingo to create necklaces, which were important trade items.^[38]

Silversmiths dominate the product of jewelry centered in the Four Corners region of the American Southwest. Early in the 1800s, Spanish and, later on, Mexican, argent buttons, bridles, etc. became available in what is now Arizona, Colorado, New Mexico and, Utah through acquisition and trade. Navajo (Diné) artists began working silvery in the 1850s after learning the art from Mexican smiths. The Zuni, who admired the silver jewelry fabricated past Navajo smiths, traded livestock for instruction in working silver. Past 1890, Zuni smiths had instructed the Hopi besides.^[39]

The centuries-former art of lapidary, preserved by clan and family unit tradition, remains an important element of design. Rock on stone mosaic inlay, channel inlay, cluster piece of work, petite point, needle point, and natural cutting or smoothed and polished cabochons fashioned from shells, coral, semi-precious and precious gems commonly decorate these works of art with blue or green turquoise beingness the most common and recognizable material used.

Apache [edit]

Both Apache men and women take traditionally worn a variety of jewelry, including earrings and bracelets with strung beads of crush and turquoise. Many bracelets and other jewelry are made of silver with turquoise inlays, and rings have been made from brass or silvery. Apache women historically wore a number of necklaces simultaneously, from chokers to strung chaplet of abalone and other shells, turquoise, jet, stones, glass beads, and sure seeds, such every bit mountain laurel seeds,^[40] and even found roots. Necklaces frequently characteristic abalone trounce pendants.^[41] When merchandise beads became bachelor from Europeans and European-Americas, Apache women began wearing several layers of cord glass bead necklaces. Mirrors obtained from traders were besides worn as pendants, or woven into vests and other clothing items.^[twoscore]

Apache jewelers use nigh any colour, only practice tend toward traditional favorite color combinations, including blackness and white, red and yellow, or pale blue and dark blue.^[41] The beadwork of Plains tribes influenced eastern Apaches tribes.^[40] Even today, young Apache girls habiliment necklaces with scratching sticks and drinking tubes during their puberty ceremonies.^[42]

San Carlos Apache jewelers are known for their use of peridot, a green gemstone, in argent bolo ties, necklaces, earrings, and other jewelry.^[43]

Hopi [edit]

Phillip Sekaquaptewa's signature commesso bolo tie, circa 1988, gimmicky Hopi silver overlay with stone and beat out. At full magnification, note matting, characteristic minute, closely packed chisel strokes applied by the Hopi (and no ane else) to the oxidized areas of the lesser silver sheet in overlay piece of work.

Sikyatata became the starting time Hopi silversmith in 1898.^[44] Hopi Indian silversmiths today are known for their overlay technique used in silver jewelry designs. The scarcity of silverish kept the chief jewelry components used by the Hopi to shell and stone until the 1930s and 1940s, and very few Hopi knew how to work argent.

In 1946, Willard Beatty, director of the Indian Educational activity for the U.s. Department of the Interior, saw an exhibit of Hopi art and was inspired to develop a silversmithing programme for Hopi veterans of World State of war 2. The veterans learned cutting, grinding and polishing, as well as die-stamping and sand-casting of stylized Hopi designs. The students and then taught fellow tribesmen silversmithing, which they used to stylize traditional designs from the decorative patterns of sometime pottery and baskets.

The Museum of Northern Arizona encouraged the early on silversmiths to develop their ain mode, distinct from neighboring tribes. Victor Coochwytewa was one of the most innovative jewelers - 1 who is ofttimes credited with adapting the overlay technique to Hopi jewelry, forth with Paul Saufkie and Fred Kabotie. The Hopi Silvercraft Cooperative Guild was organized by these early students.^[45] Saufkie's son Lawrence continued making silver overlay jewelry for more than 60 years.

Overlay involves two layers of silver sheets. One canvass has the design etched into information technology, so is soldered onto the second sheet with cut out designs. The background is made darker through oxidation, and the top layer is polished where the bottom layer of argent is immune to oxidize. The height un-oxidized top layer is fabricated into a cutout design, which allows the dark bottom layer to show through. This technique is still in utilize today in argent jewelry.

Hopi jeweler Charles Loloma (1921–1991) transformed mid-20th-century Native American jewelry by winning major awards with his work that incorporated new materials and techniques. Loloma was the starting time to utilize gold and to inlay multiple stones within a piece of jewelry, which completely changed the look of Hopi jewelry.^[46]

Navajo [edit]

Fritz Casuse, Navajo jeweler, Santa Atomic number 26^[47]

The Navajo, or Diné, began working silver in the 19th century. Atsidi Sani, or "One-time Smith" (c. 1828 – 1918),^[48] who may have been the offset Navajo blacksmith and is credited as the first Navajo silversmith, learned to work argent from a Mexican smith as early as 1853.^{[44] [49]} Navajo metalsmiths make buckles, bridles, buttons, rings, canteens, hollow beads, earrings, crescent-shaped pendants (chosen "najas"), bracelets, crosses, powder chargers, tobacco canteens, and disks, known equally "conchas" or conchos" - typically used to decorate belts - made from copper, steel, atomic number 26, and most commonly, silver.

Early Navajo smiths rocker-engraved, stamped, and filed designs into obviously silvery, melted from coins, flatware, and ingots obtained from European-American traders. Later, sheet silver and wire acquired from American settlers were too fabricated into jewelry. The punches and stamps used by Mexican leather workers became the starting time tools used to create these decorations. Still after, railroad spurs, cleaved files, iron scraps and, subsequently, piston rods became handmade stamps in the easily of these skilled artisans.^[50] Equally commercially-fabricated stamps became available however, through contact with the larger American economic system, they were as well utilized. Several other traditional hand tools are employed, being relatively elementary to construct.

The bellows consists of a skin bag about a foot long, held open with wooden hoops. Information technology is provided with a valve and a nozzle. A forge, crucibles, an anvil, and tongs are used during the melting procedure. Molds, the matrix and dice, common cold chisels, scissors, pliers, files, awls, and emery paper also come into play. A soldering setup, consisting of a blowpipe and a torch made of oil-soaked rags used with borax, is manipulated past the smith. The silversmith uses a grinding stone, sandstone dust, and ashes for polishing the jewelry, and a common salt called almogen is used for whitening. Navajo jewelers began sand casting argent around 1875; argent was melted and then poured into a mold, which would exist carved from sandstone.^[50] When cooled and set, the piece normally required additional filing and smoothing. Bandage jewelry was likewise occasionally engraved. Sterling silverish jewelry was soldered, and surrounded by scrolls, beads, and leafage patterns.

Turquoise is closely associated with Navajo jewelry, but it was not until 1880 that the offset turquoise was known to exist set up in silver. Turquoise became much more readily available in ensuing decades. Coral and other semi-precious stones came into common use around 1900.

I of the most important forms of Navajo and Southwestern Native American jewelry, is the Squash Blossom Necklace. Most are made of a string of plain round silver beads, interspersed with more stylized "squash blossoms", and feature a pendant, or "naja", hung from the centre of the strand. The squash blossom beads are copied from the buttons which held together the pants worn by the Spanish, and later, Mexican caballeros. These buttons represent - and are modeled after - pomegranates.^{[51] [52] [53]} Their identification every bit "squash blossoms", which they closely resemble, is an understandable, and often repeated, error.^[54] The naja, which resembles an upside-down horseshoe, completes the pattern. Their origin can be found a continent, and several hundred years abroad, as a traditional part of Castilian horse halters.^{[55] [56] [57]}

In 1903, anthropologist Uriah Hollister wrote virtually the Navajo; he said, "Belts and necklaces of silver are their pride... They are so skillful and patient in hammering and shaping that a fairly good-shaped teaspoon is often made of a silver dollar without melting and casting."^[58]

• 

  Navajo Squash Blossom Necklace

• 

  silver overlay bolo tie, past Tommy Singer, c. 1980s. This is an instance of a Navajo re-create of Hopi silver overlay technique, axiomatic from the absence of matting on the black oxidized surfaces of the bottom silverish canvass, or pocket-size, repeated, closely packed chisel strokes, very taxing on the silversmith, particularly the eyes.^[59]

Kewa Pueblo [edit]

Kewa Pueblo, formerly known equally Santo Domingo, is located on the Rio Grande and is peculiarly known for heishi necklaces, besides as a style of necklace consisting of tear-shaped, flat "tabs" strung on heishe crush or turquoise chaplet. The tabs were made from bone inset with a design in the traditional mosaic way, using $.25 of turquoise, jet and beat out. These beautiful and colorful necklaces are also sometimes incorrectly identified as "Depression Jewelry", however their origin certainly predates the Great Depression, and they are still being made today in big quantities by Kewa artists.

Gail Bird is a contemporary Kewa jeweler, known for her collaborations with Navajo jeweler Yazzie Johnson and their themed concha belts.^[sixty]

Zuni [edit]

Zuni jewelry-making dates dorsum to Ancestral Pueblo prehistory. Early Zuni lapidaries used stone and antler tools, wooden drills with flake stone, or cactus spine drillbits, also as abrading tools made of woods and stone, sand for smoothing, and fiber cords for stringing.^[61]

With the exception of silver jewelry, which was introduced to Zuni Pueblo in the 19th century, near of the materials commonly worked by Zuni jewelry makers in the 20th century have e'er been in use in the Zuni region. These include turquoise, jet, argillite, steatite, red shale, freshwater mollusk vanquish, abalone, and spiny oyster.^[62]

Since pre-contact times, Zuni carve stone and shell fetishes, which they trade with other tribes and even non-Natives. Fetishes are carved from turquoise, amber, shell, or onyx. Today, Zuni bird fetishes are oftentimes set with heishe beads in multi-strand necklaces.^[63]

Lanyade became the offset Zuni silversmith in 1872.^[44] Kineshde, a Zuni smith of the tardily 1890s, is credited for first combining silver and turquoise in his jewelry.^[64] Zuni jewelers shortly became known for their clusterwork.

Following the Sitgreaves Expedition in 1854, Captain Lorenzo Sitgreaves illustrated a Zuni forge, which was however in use equally late as the early part of the 20th century. The forge was made from adobe, with bellows handmade from animate being skins. Silverish was cast in sandstone molds, and finished by tooling - equally opposed to engraving. Thin sheets of silver were cut with scissors and shears.^[65]

The institution of the railroad, with the accompanying tourist trade and the advent of trading posts, heavily influenced Zuni and other Southwest tribes' jewelry manufacturing techniques and materials. In the early on 20th century, trader C.G. Wallace influenced the management of Zuni silver and lapidary work to appeal to a non-Native audience. Wallace was aided past the proliferation of the automobile and interstate highways such as Road 66 and I-40, and promotion of tourism in Gallup and Zuni.^[62] Wallace employed local Zuni people every bit clerks, jewelry makers, and miners. He provided tools, equipment, and silversmithing supplies to the jewelers with whom he did business organisation. Wallace influenced Zuni art by encouraging the use of specific materials that sold well at his posts - such as coral - and discouraging others such as tortoise beat out.^[62]

Wallace provided large chunks of turquoise to Zuni artists, giving them the opportunity to carve figures in the round. Wallace likewise encouraged the increased production and comeback of small-rock techniques similar needlepoint and petit signal in the hope that these styles would thwart the production of car-made jewelry. He too urged jewelers to experiment with silverish construction to satisfy his customers' preferences for lightweight jewelry.^[62]

Come across too [edit]

• Native American fine art
• Native American beadwork
• List of indigenous artists of the Americas
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Notes [edit]

1. ^ Roberts, Kathaleen. "Birch Bawl Biting, One of the Rarest of Native American Fine art Forms, Will Be Featured at Showcase." Albuquerque Journal. 19 Nov 2007. Retrieved 22 Dec 2011.
2. ^ Dubin, Lois Sherr. North American Indian Jewelry and Adornment: From Prehistory to the Present. New York: Harry N. Abrams, 1999: 170-171. ISBN 0-8109-3689-5.
3. ^ Mann, Charlotte (September 19, 2014). "TAIL-SHAPED Bone EARRINGS CARVED BY Aboriginal ANCESTORS ARE THE OLDEST EVER Found IN NORTH AMERICA". Mann'southward Jewelers . Retrieved 18 July 2015.
4. ^ Dubin 466
5. ^ Dubin 29
6. ^ ^{a b} Adair
7. ^ Morgan, William Henry. League of the Ho-D-No-Sau-Nee or Iroquois. Book 2. 1851
8. ^ Anderson, Lee. (northward.d.). "The History of American Indian Jewelry."
9. ^ Margery Bedinger, Indian Argent, Navajo and Pueblo Jewelers, Academy of New United mexican states Printing, 1973. 1000.G. Brown, Blue Gold, The Turquoise Story, Main Street Press, Anaheim, CA, 1975.
10. ^ ^{a b} Dubin 239
11. ^ Dubin 241
12. ^ Ewers, John C. "The Exchange of the Bone Hair Pipe." Pilus Pipes in Plains Indian Beautification: A Study in Indian and White Ingenuity. (retrieved 6 Aug 2011)
13. ^ Indyke, Dottie. Juanita Growing Thunder-Fogarty. Southwest Art. (retrieved 6 Aug 2011)
14. ^ Dubin 284
15. ^ Dubin 285
16. ^ Dubin 291
17. ^ "Lifetime Honors: Bruce Caesar." Archived 2012-09-24 at the Wayback Machine National Endowment for the Arts. (retrieved 6 Aug 2011)
18. ^ Strogoff, Jody Hope and Ernest Luning. "InnerView with Ben Nighthorse Campbell." Colorado Statesman. 25 March 2011 (retrieved 6 Aug 2011)
19. ^ Dubin 170-171
20. ^ Dubin 169, 174
21. ^ Dubin 157
22. ^ Dubin 158
23. ^ Dubin 168
24. ^ Dubin 166-7
25. ^ Bostrom, Peter A. "Two Hole Gorgets." 31 May 2007 (retrieved 4 August 2011)
26. ^ Dubin 185
27. ^ Shearar sixteen
28. ^ Shearar 19
29. ^ Shearar 30
30. ^ Shearar 24
31. ^ Shearar 37
32. ^ Shearar 15
33. ^ "Native American:Prehistoric:Mississippian". Illinois State Museum. Retrieved 2010-07-xxx .
34. ^ "Stone Ear Spools." Oklahoma Archaeological Survey. (retrieved 23 Apr 2010)
35. ^ Dubin 213
36. ^ Dubin 217
37. ^ Dubin 538
38. ^ "Totems to Turquoise: Santo Domingo." American Natural History Museum. (retrieved 12 July 2011)
39. ^ Hewett, Edgar. Native Peoples of the American Southwest. 1968
40. ^ ^{a b c} Haley 104
41. ^ ^{a b} "Tribal History: Jewelry." Fort Nonetheless Apache: Chiricahua-Warm Springs Apache. (retrieved 12 July 2011)
42. ^ Dubin 512
43. ^ "White Mountain Apache Indian Reservation." Arizona Handbook. (retrieved four August 2011)
44. ^ ^{a b c} Dubin 483
45. ^ "Hopi Silverwork & Jewelry." Northern Arizona Native American Cultural Trail. (retrieved 4 August 2011)
46. ^ Dubin 534–5
47. ^ "Fritz Casuse: Biography." Towa Artists. Retrieved 22 Dec 2011
48. ^ Schaaf, Gregory and Angie Yan Schaff. American Indian Jewelry I: 1,200 Creative person Biographies. Center for Indigenous Arts and Cultural Press, 2003. Page 278.
49. ^ Adair 6
50. ^ ^{a b} Dubin 484
51. ^ Adair 44
52. ^ Bedinger 82-85
53. ^ Dubin 503
54. ^ "Squash Flower Necklace." Fernbank Museum of Natural History. (retrieved 7 Aug 2011)
55. ^ Adair 41-43
56. ^ Bedinger 73-77
57. ^ Dubin 502-503
58. ^ Hollister, Uriah. "Full Text of The Navajo and His Blanket." Net Archive. (retrieved 18 April 2010)
59. ^ Tommy Singer. Retrieved 22 Dec 2011.
60. ^ "Many Cute Colors: Jewelry by Native American Artists." Archived 2011-06-29 at the Wayback Machine Wheelwright Museum of the American Indian. (retrieved 23 April 2010)
61. ^ Slaney, Deborah C. "The Development of Zuni Jewelry." Southwest Art. 1 August 1998 (retrieved 4 Baronial 2011)
62. ^ ^{a b c d} Cirillo, Dexter. "Southwestern Indian Jewelry". Abbeville Printing, 1992.
63. ^ Dubin 510-511
64. ^ "History of Native American Turquoise Jewelry in the The states."] 9 September 2007 (retrieved four August 2011)
65. ^ Smith, Harlan I. "Primitive Work in Metal." The Southern Workman. Hampton Institute. Vol. 40, Issue 12, 1911. Page 217.

References [edit]

• Adair, John. The Navajo and Pueblo Silversmiths. University of Oklahoma Printing, 1989. ISBN 0-8061-2215-3.
• Baxter, Paula A., & Bird-Romero, Allison. Encyclopedia of Native American Jewelry: A Guide to History, People, and Terms. Phoenix: Oryx Press, 2000. ISBN 1-57356-128-2.
• Branson, Oscar T. Indian Jewelry Making. Tucson, AZ: Treasure Chest Publications, 1977. ISBN 0-442-21418-ix.
• Dubin, Lois Sherr. Northward American Indian Jewelry and Adornment: From Prehistory to the Present. New York: Harry N. Abrams, 1999: 170-171. ISBN 0-8109-3689-5.
• Haley, James Fifty. Apaches: a history and culture portrait. Norman: University of Oklahoma Press, 1997. ISBN 978-0-8061-2978-5.
• Karasik, Carol. The Turquoise Trail: Native American Jewelry and Culture of the Southwest. New York: Abrams, 1993. ISBN 0-8109-3869-three.
• Shearar, Cheryl. Understanding Northwest Coast Art. Vancouver: Douglas & McIntyre, 2000. ISBN 0-295-97973-9.
• Turnbaugh, William A., & Turnbaugh, Sarah Peabody. Indian Jewelrey of the American Southwest. West CHester, PA: Schiffer Publications, Ltd., 1988. ISBN 0-88740-148-1.
• Wright, Margaret Nickelson. Hopi Silver: The History and Hallmarks of Hopi Silversmithing. Flagstaff, AZ: Northland Printing, 1972.

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Source: https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Native_American_jewelry

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